Engr 691-10: Special Topics in Engineering Science
Software Architecture
Spring Semester 2002
Lecture Notes

Polymorphism (Budd's UOOPJ, Ch. 12)

This is a set of "slides" to accompany chapter 12 of Timothy Budd's textbook Understanding Object-Oriented Programming with Java, Updated Edition (Addison-Wesley, 2000).

Definition

Polymorphous:

Having, or assuming, various forms, characters, or styles (from Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Fifth Edition).

Term used in several different ways in computer science

Polymorphism in Programming Languages

• A variable holding a value drawn from a group of types

• A name associated with several different function bodies

• A single function with polymorphic variables as parameters

Polymorphism in Untyped Languages

Polymorphism is a trivial issue in untyped languages

All variables are potentially polymorphic

Variables take on the type of their values dynamically

silly: x
        " a silly Smalltalk polymorphic method "
        (x isKindOf: Integer) ifTrue: [ ^ x + 1  ] .
        (x isKindOf: Fraction) ifTrue: [ ^ x reciprocal  ] .
        (x isKindOf: String) ifTrue: [ ^ x reversed  ] .
        ^ nil

Forms of Polymorphism

• polymorphic variables

• overloading (ad hoc polymorphism)

• overriding

• deferred (abstract) methods

• pure polymorphism (functions with polymorphic parameters)

• generics or templates

Polymorphic Variables

Variable declared as one class can hold values from subclass

• Dynamic (run-time) type must be subclass of static (declared) type

• In C++, only works with pointers and references

• Polymorphic variables (or values) basis for power of OOP

Overloading

A single function name denoting two or more function bodies is overloaded

• Common example: + means both integer and floating addition

  In Java, + also used for string concatenation

• Determination of which function to execute made by examining argument/return types

• Bound either at compile-time or at run-time depending on language

• Should not be confused with overriding or refinement -- functions need not be related by classes

• Should not be confused with coercion (casting) -- one type is converted into another for operation

Overloading Example: Florist

class Spouse
{   public void sendFlowersTo(Address anAddress)
    {   go to florist;
        give florist message sendFlowersTo(anAddress);
    }
}

class Florist
{   public void sendFlowersTo(Address anAddress);
    {   if (address is nearby)
        {   make up flower arrangement;
            tell delivery person sendFlowersTo(anAddress);
        }
        else
        {   look up florist near anAddress;
            contact other florist;
            give other florist message sendFlowersTo(anAddress);
        }

    }
}

• Above the sendFlowersTo methods are semantically related but not related via inheritance

• Methods with same name not necessarily related semantically

Overloading and Type Signatures

• Selection of which procedure to execute based on type signature

  -- the number, types, and order of parameters

  -- parametric overloading

• Often used in constructors

• C++ and Java allow functions in same scope to have same name if signatures differ

• C++ also allows extensive overloading of operator symbols

  Polymorphic Symbol << used for both left shift and stream output -- latter also overloaded by type of value

      stream << integer;
      stream << char;
      stream << char *;
      stream << double;
      stream << complex;
  

Overriding

Overriding occurs when child class changes meaning of function from parent

• Different child classes can override in different ways -- replacement or refinement

• Parent class can have default behavior; child classes alternatives

• Contributes to code sharing

• Ensures common interfaces

Example: Comparisons

abstract class Magnitude
{   public boolean lessOrEqual(Magnitude arg) 
            throws IncomparableMagnitudeException
    {   return (this.lessThan(arg) || this.equals(arg)); }

    public boolean greaterOrEqual(Magnitude arg) 
            throws IncomparableMagnitudeException
    {   return arg.lessOrEqual(this);  }

    public boolean lessThan(Magnitude arg)
            throws IncomparableMagnitudeException
    {   return this.lessOrEqual(arg) && ! this.equals(arg);  }

    public boolean greaterThan(Magnitude arg)
            throws IncomparableMagnitudeException
    {   return arg.lessThan(this);  }
}

class IncomparableMagnitudeException extends Exception
{   public IncomparableMagnitudeException() { }
    public IncomparableMagnitudeException(String msg) { super(msg); }
}

To define all six comparisons in a noncircular manner, subclasses must:

• Override class Object method equals() if default not appropriate

• Override class Magnitude method lessThan() or lessOrEqual()

class Point extends Magnitude
{   public Point(int x0, int y0) { x = x0; y = y0; }

    public boolean lessThan(Magnitude arg) 
            throws IncomparableMagnitudeException
    {   if (arg instanceof Point)
        {   Point p = (Point) arg;      // less if lower left quadrant
            return x < p.x && y < p.y;  // of this point
        }
        else
            throw new IncomparableMagnitudeException(); 
    }

    private int x;
    private int y;
}

Note: The above method uses inheritance by limitation because of the check for the Point type and throwing the exception

Deferred (Abstract) Methods

• Deferred method is special case of overriding

• Parent class gives type signature, but provides no implementation

• Child class must provide an implementation

• Usually combined with other techniques

• Method included in parent class because it fits in abstraction, although no concrete definition may be possible at that level

  Semantics of abstract methods should be specified carefully -- e.g., using pre- and postconditions

  Subclasses should adhere to specification

• Allows the deferred method to be applied to polymorphic variables of the parent type

• In Java, use abstract modifier for method

Pure Polymorphism

• Pure polymorphism usually means functions with polymorphic parameters (including receiver)

• Method between (like the other methods of Magnitude) exhibits pure polymorphism

  class Magnitude
  {   ...
      public boolean between(Magnitude low, Magnitude high)
              throws IncomparableMagnitudeException
      {    return low.lessOrEqual(this) && this.lessOrEqual(high); }
  }
  

  Works for any receiver or arguments of parent type Magnitude (generates exception if of incomparable types)

• Code below would print "Is Between"

  Point p     = new Point(0,0);
  Point q     = new Point(10,10);
  Magnitude r = new Point(0,0);
  
  if (r.between(p,q))
      System.println("Is Between");
  else
      System.println("Is Not Between");
  

  Message r.between(p,q) has the following trace of dynamic binding:

  • In code above, checks for between() in Point, not found
  • In code above, checks for between() in Magnitude, found, binds call
  • In Magnitude.between, checks for lessOrEqual() in Point, not found
  • In Magnitude.between, checks for lessOrEqual() in Magnitude, found, binds call
  • In Magnitude.lessOrEqual, checks for lessThan() in Point, found, binds call
  • In Point.lessThan, returns false since (0,0) is not less than (0,0)
  • In Magnitude.lessOrEqual, checks for equals() in Point, not found
  • In Magnitude.lessOrEqual, checks for equals() in Magnitude, not found
  • In Magnitude.lessOrEqual, checks for equals() in Object, found, binds call
  • In Object.equals, returns true
  • In Magnitude.lessOrEqual, returns true since (0,0) <= (0,0)
  • Similar for comparison of (0,0) and (10,10) ...
  • In Magnitude.between, returns true since (0,0) <= (0,0) and (0,0) <= (10,10), l

• Note that polymorphism (dynamic binding) takes more execution time than a static binding

Generics and Templates

• A type can be used as a parameter in class description

  C++ example:

      template <class T> class Link 
      {   
      public:
          ...
      private:    
          T value;
          Link * nextLink;
      }
  

• Declaration of variable provides the actual type

      Link<Shape> sl;
  

  Declaration above makes s1 a Link variable that has a value of type Shape

• Generics not supported in Java currently, but may be in the future

  Keyword generic reserved

  Experimental versions of Java do support generics

Review of Polymorphism in Java

Polymorphic variables? Yes

• Tree-structured subclass hierarchy using inheritance (extends)

• Subtype hierarchies using interfaces (implements)

• Variables declared with either class or interface as type

• Variables can hold value from subclass or interface subtype

Overloading? Yes

• Overloading of method names (including in same class with parametric overloading)

• No user-defined overloading of operator symbols

Overriding? Yes

• By default, all methods can be overridden

• Keyword final prevents overriding

Deferred methods? Yes

• Keyword abstract for deferred methods, signature but no body

Pure polymorphism? Yes

• Dynamic binding of call to method, searching up subclass hierarchy

Generics? No

• Perhaps in future

• Experimental versions such as GJ (Generic Java)

Efficiency and Polymorphism

• Programming always involves compromises

• Polymorphism is a compromise between efficiency and ease of development, use and maintenance

• Ask yourself: whose time is more important -- yours or the computer's?

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